Electrochemical Sensors for Plant Active Small Molecule Detection: A review

doi:10.12133/j.smartag.SA202502023

Abstract

Abstract:

[Significance] Plant active small molecules play a key role in regulating plant growth and resisting environmental stress. Accurate detection of these molecules is of great significance for achieving precise management of agriculture and promoting the development of smart agriculture. Various detection methods have been used for the detection of plant active small molecules, among which electrochemical sensors have attracted much attention due to their sensitivity, portability, and low cost. [Progress] By reviewing relevant literature, this article deeply analyzes the research status of electrochemical sensors in the field of detecting plant active small molecules, and provides a detailed analysis of the sensing principles, signal amplification strategies, and application potential of each sensor. The development trend of sensors from in vitro to in vivo and in situ detection, the important role of nanomaterials in the sensing process, and the combination of sensors with flexible electronics and artificial intelligence technology are discussed. [Conclusion] This article summarizes the technical challenges currently faced by electrochemical sensors in the field of detecting plant active small molecules and analyzes the next development direction, including improving sensing performance, optimizing electrolyte materials, and integrating sensors with microelectronics and artificial intelligence technology, providing a reference for the technical research and application of plant small molecule electrochemical sensors.

Key words: electrochemical sensor, plant active small molecules, in vitro detection, in vivo detection, artificial intelligence, sensor

CLC Number:

TP212.2

ZHANG Le, LI Aixue, CHEN Liping. Electrochemical Sensors for Plant Active Small Molecule Detection: A review[J]. Smart Agriculture, doi: 10.12133/j.smartag.SA202502023.

Figures/Tables 10

Fig.1

Fig.2

Fig.3

Fig. 4

Fig.5

Fig. 6

Table 1

Electrochemical sensors for in vitro detection of plant active small molecules and performance

目标分子	工作电极	检测范围	LOD	检测样品	参考文献
吲哚-3-乙酸	Pd-ZnO/h-BN/GCE	0.5—50 μM	0.13 μM	绿豆	［21］
吲哚-3-乙酸	ZnO NRs/CPE	0.3—5 μM	0.017 μM	豆类、小麦	［22］
吲哚-3-乙酸	Au-3DGR/SPCE	1.25—120 μmol/L，135—500 μmol/L	0.15 μmol/L	绿豆	［23］
吲哚-3-乙酸	AuNPs-anti/GA/PAMAM/GA/AET/Au	10 pg/mL—10 μg/mL	4.62 pg/mL	向日葵幼苗茎部	［52］
水杨酸	ERGO-SPCE	0.05—25 μM	—	橙汁	［27］
水杨酸	LIPG/PI	0.5—500 μM	0.16 μM	生菜、西瓜汁	［28］
水杨酸	PADs（Pencils-carbon tape/ITO）	1—100 μM	0.1 μM	番茄	［65］
赤霉素	EPBA/ PVP/ PGE	15—225 nmol/L	4.97 nmol/L	小麦、大米	［29］
赤霉素	MIP-ECL	0.04—70 pmol/L	0.016 4 pmol/L	——	［63］
激动素	eGr/GCE	0.5—100 μM	150 nmol/L	生菜	［30］
异戊烯腺嘌呤	FCA-AHK4-BSA-GA	50—400 nM	1.5 nM	绿豆芽	［31］
葡萄糖	NPPt/ GO/Gox/ Nafion	0.1—20 mmol/L	13 μmol/L	番茄、黄瓜	［32］
葡萄糖	NiCo₂O₄-nafion-GCE	0.1—10 mM	1 nM	芥菜叶	［33］
维生素C	Gel-g-PS/SPE	0.2—5 μg/L和20—600 μg/L	0.03 μg/L	柠檬、橙子等	［34］
缬氨酸	Iron modified SPEs	0.1—0.5 M	1 mM	——	［35］
丝氨酸		0.1—0.5 mM	2.3 mM
苯丙氨酸		0.1—0.4 mM	2 mM
柠檬酸	ZnO/CuO NCs/GCE	0.15—1.05 mM	21.78 μM	橙子、黄瓜等	［36］
没食子酸	MB-GOF-GC	50—1000 μM	49.2 μM	大戟	［37］
咖啡酸	ZnO-L-BPDC/RGO/SG-2@GCE	0.008—40 μM	0.96 nM	樱桃、蓝莓等	［38］
槲皮素	NiCo-LDH/ Ti₃C₂ T_x Mxenes/GCE	0.1—20 μM	23 nM	洋葱、黄柏	［39］
槲皮素	GCE	0.1—15 μM	3.1 nM	苹果汁、梨汁等	［45］
槲皮素	TrpMA@QUE/MIP-GCE	1—25 pM	0.235 pM	野草莓等	［45］
木犀草素	Co@NCF/MoS₂-MWCNTs/GCE	0.1 nM—1.3 μM	0.071 nM	菊花、花生壳、金银花	［40］
木犀草素	Chi/TiO2-Lac/MWCNTs-BSA /GCE	80 nM—6 μM	11 nM	蒲公英	［41］
木犀草素	AgNPs@UiO-66/GCE	0.07 μM—40 μM	0.017 μM	花生壳	［46］
熊果酸	G-CN、CHIT/G-CN、（Co（II）TPP）/G-CN	——	——	云杉	［42］
过氧化氢	MWCNT-Ti₃C₂T_x-Pd/GCE	0.05—18 mM	3.83 μM	拟南介	［43］
丹参酮I	AuPd-NW/CFME	0.02—0.8 μmol/L	20.324 nmol/L	丹参	［49］
隐丹参酮	AuPd-NW/CFME	0.1—4 μmol/L	8.261 nmol L^-1	丹参	［49］
长春新碱	BSA/Ab/MWCNTs/GCE	0.2—50 nM	0.08 nM	长春花	［51］
脱落酸	BSA/ ABA-Ab / GR-COOH-SA /SPE	10 pmol/L—1 µmol/L	10 pmol/L	脐橙	［53］
茉莉酸甲酯	BSA/Anti-MeJA/Fc-GR-MWNT/SPE	100 fM—100 µM	31.26 fM	葡萄、橙子	［54］
茉莉酸甲酯	BSA/anti-MeJA/Cu-MOFs–COOH-GO/SPE	10 pM—100 μM	0.35 pM	葡萄	［55］
芹菜素	API/ZnONPs/TrpMA@MIP-GCE	0.1 pM—1 pM	0.0247 pM	芹菜、欧芹	［60］
色氨酸	BSA/apt/graphene-COP/GCE	0.1 fM—500 nM	0.03 fM	苹果汁	［64］
单宁酸	TiO₂-PMS/CdTe QDs/Nf	0.2—200 µmol/L	60 nmol/L	——	［62］

Table 1

Fig. 7

Fig. 8

Fig. 9

References 84

1	KUMARI A, PARIDA A K. Metabolomics and network analysis reveal the potential metabolites and biological pathways involved in salinity tolerance of the halophyte Salvadora persica [J]. Environmental and experimental botany, 2018, 148: 85-99.
2	LIU W, ZHANG Z Y, GENG X L, et al. Electrochemical sensors for plant signaling molecules[J]. Biosensors and bioelectronics, 2025, 267: ID 116757.
3	NEŠOVIĆ M, GAŠIĆ U, TOSTI T, et al. Distribution of polyphenolic and sugar compounds in different buckwheat plant parts[J]. RSC advances, 2021, 11(42): 25816-25829.
4	SINDHU S S, SEHRAWAT A, GLICK B R. The involvement of organic acids in soil fertility, plant health and environment sustainability[J]. Archives of microbiology, 2022, 204(12): ID 720.
5	KUMAR V, SHARMA A, KAUR R, et al. Differential distribution of amino acids in plants[J]. Amino acids, 2017, 49(5): 821-869.
6	BOUBAKRI H, GARGOURI M, MLIKI A, et al. Vitamins for enhancing plant resistance[J]. Planta, 2016, 244(3): 529-543.
7	ALIBI S, CRESPO D, NAVAS J. Plant-derivatives small molecules with antibacterial activity[J]. Antibiotics, 2021, 10(3): ID 231.
8	AL-KHAYRI J M, RASHMI R, TOPPO V, et al. Plant secondary metabolites: The weapons for biotic stress management[J]. Metabolites, 2023, 13(6): ID 716.
9	CHAPMAN J M, MUHLEMANN J K, GAYOMBA S R, et al. RBOH-dependent ROS synthesis and ROS scavenging by plant specialized metabolites to modulate plant development and stress responses[J]. Chemical research in toxicology, 2019, 32(3): 370-396.
10	LI Z L, ZHOU J P, DONG T, et al. Application of electrochemical methods for the detection of abiotic stress biomarkers in plants[J]. Biosensors and bioelectronics, 2021, 182: ID 113105.
11	MARQUES T L, SASAKI M K, NUNES L C, et al. Flow-batch sample preparation for fractionation of the stress signaling phytohormone salicylic acid in fresh leaves[J]. Journal of analytical methods in chemistry, 2020, 2020(1): ID 8865849.
12	LI Z, SUSLICK K S. Colorimetric sensor array for monitoring CO and ethylene[J]. Analytical chemistry, 2019, 91(1): 797-802.
13	BAKSHI A, SHEMANSKY J M, CHANG C R, et al. History of research on the plant hormone ethylene[J]. Journal of plant growth regulation, 2015, 34(4): 809-827.
14	LIU S C, CHEN W Q, QU L, et al. Simultaneous determination of 24 or more acidic and alkaline phytohormones in femtomole quantities of plant tissues by high-performance liquid chromatography–electrospray ionization–ion trap mass spectrometry[J]. Analytical and bioanalytical chemistry, 2013, 405(4): 1257-1266.
15	CAI W J, YU L, WANG W, et al. Simultaneous determination of multiclass phytohormones in submilligram plant samples by one-pot multifunctional derivatization-assisted liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry[J]. Analytical chemistry, 2019, 91(5): 3492-3499.
16	NEHELA Y, HIJAZ F, ELZAAWELY A A, et al. Phytohormone profiling of the sweet orange (Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck) leaves and roots using GC–MS-based method[J]. Journal of plant physiology, 2016, 199: 12-17.
17	SHANG M Y, WANG X T, ZHANG J, et al. Genetic regulation of GA metabolism during vernalization, floral bud initiation and development in pak choi (Brassica rapa ssp. chinensis makino)[J]. Frontiers in plant science, 2017, 8: ID 1533.
18	BARANWAL J, BARSE B, GATTO G, et al. Electrochemical sensors and their applications: A review[J]. Chemosensors, 2022, 10(9): ID 363.
19	ZHU C Z, YANG G H, LI H, et al. Electrochemical sensors and biosensors based on nanomaterials and nanostructures[J]. Analytical chemistry, 2015, 87(1): 230-249.
20	PAŘÍZKOVÁ B, PERNISOVÁ M, NOVÁK O. What has been seen cannot be unseen: Detecting auxin in vivo [J]. International journal of molecular sciences, 2017, 18(12): ID 2736.
21	PRAJAPATI J, GUPTA A, GAUTAM R K, et al. 2D hexagonal boron nitride nanosheets supported with palladium-doped zinc oxide nanoparticle–based electrochemical sensor for the detection of indole- 3-acetic acid[J]. Ionics, 2025: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11581-025-06271-8
22	RABIE E M, SHAMROUKH A A, KHODARI M. A novel electrochemical sensor based on modified carbon paste electrode with ZnO nanorods for the voltammetric determination of indole-3-acetic acid in plant seed extracts[J]. Electroanalysis, 2022, 34(5): 883-891.
23	SHAO B, AI Y J, YAN L J, et al. Wireless electrochemical sensor for the detection of phytoregulator indole-3-acetic acid using gold nanoparticles and three-dimensional reduced graphene oxide modified screen printed carbon electrode[J]. Talanta, 2023, 253: ID 124030.
24	WANI A B, CHADAR H, WANI A H, et al. Salicylic acid to decrease plant stress[J]. Environmental chemistry letters, 2017, 15(1): 101-123.
25	DING P T, DING Y L. Stories of salicylic acid: A plant defense hormone[J]. Trends in plant science, 2020, 25(6): 549-565.
26	COSNIER S, GONDRAN C, WATELET J C. A polypyrrole-bienzyme electrode (salicylate hydroxylase-polyphenol oxidase) for the interference-free determination of salicylate[J]. Electroanalysis, 2001, 13(11): 906-910.
27	KASHYAP B, KUMAR R. Bio-agent free electrochemical detection of Salicylic acid[C]//2019 IEEE SENSORS. October 27-30, 2019. Montreal, QC, Canada. IEEE, 2019: 1-4.
28	LI M H, ZHOU P C, WANG X Q, et al. Development of a simple disposable laser-induced porous graphene flexible electrode for portable wireless intelligent votammetric nanosensing of salicylic acid in agro-products[J]. Computers and electronics in agriculture, 2021, 191: ID 106502.
29	GHANBARY E, ASIABANI Z, HOSSEINI N, et al. The development of a new modified graphite pencil electrode for quantitative detection of Gibberellic acid (GA3) herbal hormone[J]. Microchemical journal, 2020, 157: ID 105005.
30	ZHANG Y, AI J X, HU H L, et al. Highly sensitive detection of kinetin with electrochemical exfoliation of graphene nanosheets[J]. Applied physics A, 2022, 128(4): ID 350.
31	LI Y, GONG B, LIANG X S, et al. Direct electrochemistry of bacterial surface displayed cytokinin oxidase and its application in the sensitive electrochemical detection of cytokinins[J]. Bioelectrochemistry, 2019, 130: ID 107336.
32	WU B F, XU H T, SHI Y F, et al. Microelectrode glucose biosensor based on nanoporous platinum/graphene oxide nanostructure for rapid glucose detection of tomato and cucumber fruitsOpen Access[J]. Food quality and safety, 2022, 610.1093: fqsafe.
33	SOLANGI A G, PIRZADA T, SHAH A A, et al. Phytochemicals of mustard (Brassica Campestris) leaves tuned the nickel-cobalt bimetallic oxide properties for enzyme-free sensing of glucose[J]. Journal of the Chinese chemical society, 2022, 69(9): 1608-1618.
34	MAGAR H S, FAHIM A M, HASHEM M S. Accurate, affordable, and easy electrochemical detection of ascorbic acid in fresh fruit juices and pharmaceutical samples using an electroactive gelatin sulfonamide[J]. RSC advances, 2024, 14(54): 39820-39832.
35	TAYYAB RAZA NAQVI S, RASHEED T, NAEEM ASHIQ M, et al. Fabrication of iron modified screen printed carbon electrode for sensing of amino acids[J]. Polyhedron, 2020, 180: ID 114426.
36	RAHMAN M M, ALAM M M, ASIRI A M, et al. Sensitive detection of citric acid in real samples based on Nafion/ZnO–CuO nanocomposites modified glassy carbon electrode by electrochemical approach[J]. Materials chemistry and physics, 2023, 293: ID 126975.
37	KRISHNAN V, GUNASEKARAN E, PRABHAKARAN C, et al. Electropolymerized methylene blue on graphene oxide framework for the direct voltammetric detection of Gallic acid[J]. Materials chemistry and physics, 2023, 295: ID 127071.
38	MA L, YANG J, MA J F. A porous thiacalix [4] Arene based metal–organic framework sensor combined with reduced graphene oxide and spherical graphite for highly sensitive electrochemical detection of caffeic acid[J]. Chemical engineering journal, 2025, 511: ID 161978.
39	ZHONG Y, LIAO R, HE G W, et al. An electrochemical sensor based on porous heterojunction hollow NiCo-LDH/Ti₃C₂T _x MXenes composites for the detection of quercetin in natural plants[J]. Microchimica acta, 2024, 191(10): ID 572.
40	WANG Y L, NI M J, CHEN J, et al. An ultra-sensitive luteolin sensor based on Co-doped nitrogen-containing carbon framework/MoS₂-MWCNTs composite for natural sample detection[J]. Electrochimica acta, 2023, 438: ID 141534.
41	XU K X, MA L L, CHEN Y J, et al. A biosensor based on MWCNTs-BSA and TiO₂-Laccase nanocomposite modified glassy carbon electrode for sensitive detection of luteolin in traditional Chinese Medicine[J]. Microchemical journal, 2024, 207: ID 112103.
42	OANCEA I A, VAN STADEN J F, OANCEA E, et al. Electrochemical detection of ursolic acid from spruce (Picea abies) essential oils using modified amperometric microsensors[J]. Analytical letters, 2019, 52(14): 2214-2226.
43	ZHANG J C, LU M, ZHOU H, et al. Assessment of salt stress to Arabidopsis based on the detection of hydrogen peroxide released by leaves using an electrochemical sensor[J]. International journal of molecular sciences, 2022, 23(20): ID 12502.
44	MIHAILOVA I, KRASOVSKA M, SLEDEVSKIS E, et al. Assessment of oxidative stress by detection of H₂O₂ in rye samples using a CuO- and Co₃O₄-nanostructure-based electrochemical sensor[J]. Chemosensors, 2023, 11(10): ID 532.
45	YU J B, JIN H, GUI R J, et al. A facile strategy for ratiometric electrochemical sensing of quercetin in electrolyte solution directly using bare glassy carbon electrode[J]. Journal of electroanalytical chemistry, 2017, 795: 97-102.
46	WANG Z X, PENG J, LI H L, et al. Dual function AgNPs@UiO-66 based ratiometric electrochemical sensor for rapid and sensitive determination of luteolin in plants[J]. Electrochimica acta, 2025, 512: ID 145505.
47	WU N, WANG L Y, XIE Y, et al. Double signal ratiometric electrochemical riboflavin sensor based on macroporous carbon/electroactive thionine-contained covalent organic framework[J]. Journal of colloid and interface science, 2022, 608: 219-226.
48	CAO X D, ZHU X T, HE S D, et al. Electro-oxidation and simultaneous determination of indole-3-acetic acid and salicylic acid on graphene hydrogel modified electrode[J]. Sensors, 2019, 19(24): ID 5483.
49	PAN Y B, MA W W, IHSAN A, et al. Simultaneous detection of tanshinone I and cryptotanshinone using a carbon fiber microelectrode based on gold–palladium composite network[J]. Microchemical journal, 2025, 212: ID 113378.
50	HU Y, WANG X D, WANG C, et al. A multifunctional ratiometric electrochemical sensor for combined determination of indole-3-acetic acid and salicylic acid[J]. RSC advances, 2020, 10(6): 3115-3121.
51	DAS S, SAHU P P. A novel electrochemical interdigitated electrodes sensor for limonin quantification and reduction in Citrus limetta juice[J]. Food chemistry, 2022, 381: ID 132248.
52	LI H Y, HU Y, LI A X, et al. A highly sensitive electrochemical impedance immunosensor for indole-3-acetic acid and its determination in sunflowers under salt stress[J]. RSC advances, 2017, 7(86): 54416-54421.
53	董宏图, 周思蒙, 王清涛, 等. 基于羧基化石墨烯-海藻酸钠复合材料的脱落酸电化学免疫传感器的构建及应用[J]. 智慧农业(中英文), 2022, 4(1): 110-120.
	DONG H T, ZHOU S M, WANG Q T, et al. Construction and application of a novel abscisic acid electrochemical immunosensor based on carboxylated graphene-sodium alginate nanocomposite[J]. Smart agriculture, 2022, 4(1): 110-120.
54	XING G Q, LUO B, QIN J Q, et al. A probe-free electrochemical immunosensor for methyl jasmonate based on ferrocene functionalized-carboxylated graphene-multi-walled carbon nanotube nanocomposites[J]. Talanta, 2021, 232: ID 122477.
55	XING G Q, WANG C, LIU K, et al. A probe-free electrochemical immunosensor for methyl jasmonate based on a Cu-MOF-carboxylated graphene oxide platform[J]. RSC advances, 2022, 12(26): 16688-16695.
56	SU Z H, TANG D L, LIU J J, et al. Electrochemically-assisted deposition of toluidine blue-functionalized metal-organic framework films for electrochemical immunosensing of Indole-3-acetic acid[J]. Journal of electroanalytical chemistry, 2021, 880: ID 114855.
57	MA L Y, MIAO S S, LU F F, et al. Selective electrochemical determination of salicylic acid in wheat using molecular imprinted polymers[J]. Analytical letters, 2017, 50(15): 2369-2385.
58	LIANG J, YAN F Y, JIANG C W, et al. In situ one-step electrochemical preparation of mesoporous molecularly imprinted sensor for efficient determination of indole-3-acetic acid[J]. Journal of electroanalytical chemistry, 2022, 905: ID 116000.
59	YAYLA S, HURKUL M M, CETINKAYA A, et al. Selective apigenin assay in plant extracts and herbal supplement with molecularly imprinted polymer-based electrochemical sensor[J]. Talanta, 2025, 281: ID 126895.
60	HURKUL M M, CETINKAYA A, YAYLA S, et al. Highly selective and sensitive molecularly imprinted sensors for the electrochemical assay of quercetin in methanol extracts of Rubus sanctus and Fragaria vesca [J]. Talanta, 2024, 273: ID 125883.
61	MOHAMMADI F, ROUSHANI M, VALIPOUR A. Development of a label-free impedimetric aptasensor based on Zr-MOF and titaniom carbide nanosheets for detection of L-tryptophan[J]. Bioelectrochemistry, 2024, 155: ID 108584.
62	DOS REIS LIMA F M, SILVA FREIRES ADA, MERCÊS PEREIRA NDAS, et al. Photoelectrochemical sensing of tannic acid based on the use of TiO₂ sensitized with 5-methylphenazinium methosulfate and carboxy-functionalized CdTe quantum dots[J]. Microchimica acta, 2018, 185(11): ID 521.
63	谢汉钊, 杨斌, 李建平. 分子印迹传感器能量转移电化学发光法检测赤霉素[J]. 分析化学, 2020, 48(12): 1633-1641.
	XIE H Z, YANG B, LI J P. A molecularly imprinted electrochemical luminescence sensor for detection of gibberellin based on energy transfer[J]. Chinese journal of analytical chemistry, 2020, 48(12): 1633-1641.
64	MOHAMMADI F, ROUSHANI M, NASIBIPOUR M, et al. A novel electrochemical aptasensor for L-tryptophan detection utilizing photoluminescent covalent organic polymer[J]. Sensing and bio-sensing research, 2025, 47: ID 100773.
65	WANG H R, BI X M, FANG Z J, et al. Real time sensing of salicylic acid in infected tomato leaves using carbon tape electrodes modified with handed pencil trace[J]. Sensors and actuators B: chemical, 2019, 286: 104-110.
66	LI H Y, WANG C, WANG X D, et al. Disposable stainless steel-based electrochemical microsensor for in vivo determination of indole-3-acetic acid in soybean seedlings[J]. Biosensors and bioelectronics, 2019, 126: 193-199.
67	YANG X L, HUO D D, TIAN Y R, et al. AuNPs/GO/Pt microneedle electrochemical sensor for in situ monitoring of hydrogen peroxide in tomato stems in response towounding stimulation[J]. Analytical and bioanalytical chemistry, 2025, 417(6): 1067-1079.
68	WU B F, XU H T, SHI Y F, et al. Online monitoring of indole-3-acetic acid in living plants based on nitrogen-doped carbon nanotubes/core–shell Au@Cu₂O nanoparticles/carbon fiber electrochemical microsensor[J]. ACS sustainable chemistry & engineering, 2022, 10(40): 13465-13475.
69	ZHANG F, LI M J, LI H J, et al. Fabrication of self-supporting nitrogen-doped graphene microelectrodes for in situ analysis of salicylic acid in plants[J]. Carbon, 2021, 175: 364-376.
70	ZHANG J, LI M J, LI C P, et al. Electrochemical needle sensor based on a B, N Co-doped graphene microelectrode array for the on-site detection of salicylic acid in fruits and vegetables[J]. Food chemistry, 2024, 449: ID 139264.
71	LIU D D, LI M J, LI H J, et al. Core-shell Au@Cu₂O-graphene-polydopamine interdigitated microelectrode array sensor for in situ determination of salicylic acid in cucumber leaves[J]. Sensors and actuators B: Chemical, 2021, 341: ID 130027.
72	BUKHAMSIN A, LAHCEN AAIT, DE OLIVEIRA FILHO J, et al. Minimally-invasive, real-time, non-destructive, species-independent phytohormone biosensor for precision farming[J]. Biosensors and bioelectronics, 2022, 214: ID 114515.
73	YAN L C, LUO B, WANG C, et al. Molecularly imprinted polymer-based electrochemical sensor for in situ detection of free proline in cucumber leaves[J]. ChemElectroChem, 2024, 11(3): ID e202300538.
74	YANG L, CHEN D, WANG X D, et al. Ratiometric electrochemical sensor for accurate detection of salicylic acid in leaves of living plants[J]. RSC advances, 2020, 10(64): 38841-38846.
75	KHAZAEE NEJAD S, MA H Z, AL-SHAMI A, et al. Sustainable agriculture with LEAFS: A low-cost electrochemical analyzer of foliage stress[J]. Sensors & diagnostics, 2024, 3(3): 400-411.
76	PARRILLA M, SENA-TORRALBA A, STEIJLEN A, et al. A 3D-printed hollow microneedle-based electrochemical sensing device for in situ plant health monitoring[J]. Biosensors and bioelectronics, 2024, 251: ID 116131.
77	WEI H J, LIU K, ZHANG H, et al. Smart wearable flexible sensor based on laser-induced graphene/gold nanoparticles/black phosphorus nanosheets for in situ quercetin detection[J]. Chemical engineering journal, 2024, 497: ID 154271.
78	PERDOMO S A, DE LA PAZ E, DEL CAÑO R, et al. Non-invasive in-vivo glucose-based stress monitoring in plants[J]. Biosensors and bioelectronics, 2023, 231: ID 115300.
79	SU L Y, LI Y, CHEN H Y, et al. Polyacrylamide-incorporated copper electrodes for electrochemical-colorimetric dual-mode detection of H₂O₂ released from tomato leaves[J]. Talanta, 2025, 287: ID 127689.
80	TANG L J, LI D D, LIU W, et al. Continuous in vivo monitoring of indole-3-acetic acid and salicylic acid in tomato leaf veins based on an electrochemical microsensor[J]. Biosensors, 2023, 13(12): ID 1002.
81	TANG L J, LI D D, LIU W, et al. Microneedle electrochemical sensor based on disposable stainless-steel wire for real-time analysis of indole-3-acetic acid and salicylic acid in tomato leaves infected by Pst DC3000 in situ [J]. Analytica chimica acta, 2024, 1316: ID 342875.
82	WANG Z, XUE L F, LI M J, et al. Au@SnO₂-vertical graphene-based microneedle sensor for in situ determination of abscisic acid in plants[J]. Materials science and engineering: C, 2021, 127: ID 112237.
83	YAN H L, WANG J X, SHI N, et al. A flexible and wearable chemiresistive ethylene gas sensor modified with PdNPs-SWCNTs@Cu-MOF-74 nanocomposite: A targeted strategy for the dynamic monitoring of fruit freshness[J]. Chemical engineering journal, 2024, 488: ID 151142.
84	GAO J P, LI H J, LI M J, et al. Polydopamine/graphene/MnO₂ composite-based electrochemical sensor for in situ determination of free tryptophan in plants[J]. Analytica chimica acta, 2021, 1145: 103-113.

[1]	LIU Jifang, ZHOU Xiangyang, LI Min, HAN Shuqing, GUO Leifeng, CHI Liang, YANG Lu, WU Jianzhai. Artificial Intelligence-Driven High-Quality Development of New-Quality Productivity in Animal Husbandry: Restraining Factors, Generation Logic and Promotion Paths [J]. Smart Agriculture, 2025, 7(1): 165-177.
[2]	ZHANG Fan, ZHOU Mengting, XIONG Benhai, YANG Zhengang, LIU Minze, FENG Wenxiao, TANG Xiangfang. Research Advances and Prospect of Intelligent Monitoring Systems for the Physiological Indicators of Beef Cattle [J]. Smart Agriculture, 2024, 6(4): 1-17.
[3]	LIU Yang, JI Jie, PAN Deng, ZHAO Lijun, LI Mingsheng. Localization Method for Agricultural Robots Based on Fusion of LiDAR and IMU [J]. Smart Agriculture, 2024, 6(3): 94-106.
[4]	GUO Wang, YANG Yusen, WU Huarui, ZHU Huaji, MIAO Yisheng, GU Jingqiu. Big Models in Agriculture: Key Technologies, Application and Future Directions [J]. Smart Agriculture, 2024, 6(2): 1-13.
[5]	LI Lu, GE Yuqing, ZHAO Jianlong. Capacitive Soil Moisture Sensor Based on MoS₂ [J]. Smart Agriculture, 2024, 6(1): 28-35.
[6]	WEI Qian, GAO Yuanyuan, LI Aixue. Electrochemical Immunosensor for in Situ Detection of Brassinolide [J]. Smart Agriculture, 2024, 6(1): 76-88.
[7]	WANG Rujing. Agricultural Sensor: Research Progress, Challenges and Perspectives [J]. Smart Agriculture, 2024, 6(1): 1-17.
[8]	CHEN Ruiyun, TIAN Wenbin, BAO Haibo, LI Duan, XIE Xinhao, ZHENG Yongjun, TAN Yu. Three-Dimensional Environment Perception Technology for Agricultural Wheeled Robots: A Review [J]. Smart Agriculture, 2023, 5(4): 16-32.
[9]	MAO Kebiao, ZHANG Chenyang, SHI Jiancheng, WANG Xuming, GUO Zhonghua, LI Chunshu, DONG Lixin, WU Menxin, SUN Ruijing, WU Shengli, JI Dabin, JIANG Lingmei, ZHAO Tianjie, QIU Yubao, DU Yongming, XU Tongren. The Paradigm Theory and Judgment Conditions of Geophysical Parameter Retrieval Based on Artificial Intelligence [J]. Smart Agriculture, 2023, 5(2): 161-171.
[10]	LIU Youfu, XIAO Deqin, ZHOU Jiaxin, BIAN Zhiyi, ZHAO Shengqiu, HUANG Yigui, WANG Wence. Status Quo of Waterfowl Intelligent Farming Research Review and Development Trend Analysis [J]. Smart Agriculture, 2023, 5(1): 99-110.
[11]	GUI Zechun, ZHAO Sijian. Research Application of Artificial Intelligence in Agricultural Risk Management: A Review [J]. Smart Agriculture, 2023, 5(1): 82-98.
[12]	ZHAO Ruixue, YANG Chenxue, ZHENG Jianhua, LI Jiao, WANG Jian. Agricultural Intelligent Knowledge Service: Overview and Future Perspectives [J]. Smart Agriculture, 2022, 4(4): 105-125.
[13]	ZHUO Yue, DING Feng, YAN Haijun, XU Jing. Advances in Forage Crop Growth Monitoring by UAV Remote Sensing [J]. Smart Agriculture, 2022, 4(4): 35-48.
[14]	WANG Hui, CHEN Ruipeng, YU Zhixue, HE Yue, ZHANG Fan, XIONG Benhai. Porphyrin and Semiconducting Single Wall Carbon Nanotubes based Semiconductor Field Effect Gas Sensor for Determination of Phytophthora Strawberries [J]. Smart Agriculture, 2022, 4(3): 143-151.
[15]	GENG Wenxuan, ZHAO Junye, RUAN Jiwei, HOU Yuehui. Comparative Study of the Regulation Effects of Artificial Intelligence-Assisted Planting Strategies on Strawberry Production in Greenhouse [J]. Smart Agriculture, 2022, 4(2): 183-193.